Gender and Sexuality
Gender
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Different than sex, which is (usually) biologically
determined (usually) by genetic arrangement
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Gender – Is a culturally defined set of roles and behavior mapped onto
biological difference
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These expectations vary over time and place, and often have much
bigger impact than biological difference
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Sexuality is the practices and identities associated with sexual
acts
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These, like gender, vary greatly over time and space
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Although with globalization and GLBT-focused NGO’s, you are seeing
category convergence where categories “heterosexual, gay, lesbian, bisexual”
which come from Western context are replacing the myriad of localized
categories of sexual practice.
In the beginning…
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We have already discussed that in many societies, women were
excluded from participation in (and sometimes even spectatorship) of sports.
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And while there are obviously size, strength, precision and
endurance differences between averages of large populations of men and women,
women in general (and poor women in particular) still did a lot of physical
activity
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Meaning that barriers to sports are almost always created, instead
of “natural”.
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Indeed, even these “natural” differences does not stop women from
beating men in sports
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In fact, it was a watershed moment when Billie Jean King beat
former men’s champion Bobby Riggs in the Battle of the Sexes tennis match in
1973 (held in the Astrodome in Houston)
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This situation probably got worse with colonialism, when the idea
that women should not be involved in physical activity was part of the
“civilizing mission” Europeans forced on other peoples.
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This continued at least the through 1950s when the US became
hegemonic in the geopolitical world, and the “house wife” ideal was exported.
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For example, up until 1984, there was no Olympic women’s marathon
– because it was thought women could not handle it.
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Women now make up 43% of all marathon finishers; 61% of half
marathon finishers
Title IX
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Passed and signed in 1972, its basic tenet was that “No person in
the United States shall, on the basis of sex, be excluded from participation
in, be denied the benefits of, or be subjected to discrimination under any
education program or activity receiving federal financial assistance.”
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There was no mention of athletics in the initial law, but the
implications became obvious
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In the house it was passed by Edith Green and Patsy Mink; in the
Senate, it was by Birch Bayh, who used his position to make sure as regulations
were written, that athletics would have to apply them too.
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Disgustingly, the NCAA fought the implementation of regulations
(mainly, it fought women getting sports scholarships)
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It took several amendments to get full enforcement, clarification
on tests of compliances
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Along with giving baseball exemption from anti-trust laws (setting
the stage for professional leagues in the US); nothing impacted the realm of
sports more in this country than Title IX.
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This Youtube documentary by Kevin Coogan does an excellent job of
showing the general parameters: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DrIi8fG08D4
Title IX (cont.)
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While there have obviously been big impacts of college athletics;
the bigger impact is on high school athletics, where there were a few hundred
thousand girls playing in 1972, to 3.27 million today (or 40% of all girls).
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There are of course still disparities: in the Deep South, 50% of
schools are not in full compliance, with schools serving poor students
(particularly rural districts) and students of color being the most likely
culprits
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This is an example of intersectionality – that multiple axes of difference
come together to produce divergent outcomes
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Billy Jean King founded Women’s Sports Foundation in 1974 to also
keep watch over girl’s and women’s athletics. It notes sports participation
confers the following benefits on female athletes:
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Reduction in teen pregnancy rates
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Increased GPA and graduation rates
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Reduced risk of later life diseases like breast cancer and
osteoporosis
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Increase self-esteem, positive body image, and decreased
depression
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Women’s teams tend to be meritocracies not popularity contests –
something which used to plague “girl’s activities” at high school level.
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Ability to more easily project confidence and move past mistakes
(against older ideas where girls were supposed to be meek and feel guilty)
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Skills learned in these areas transfer to other arenas; they also
benefit all women by raising the level of expectation
Title IX (cont.)
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The main charge levied against Title IX is that at the collegiate
level, is that some feel it has caused the elimination of men’s sports like
wrestling, tennis, gymnastics at some schools, which has been severely
disruptive for the impacted athletes.
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However, the main culprit is not women’s sports, it is the
“revenue sports”: football and men’s basketball
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In particular, football is ridiculously expensive: football head
coaches command more money than other coaches; they have the largest coaching
staffs; most expensive training equipment AND give scholarships to 85 players,
who all have to be recruited
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If the football team does not make money (and only half of the
Division I teams do), it is the ‘rest’ of the sports that suffer
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And while it is more that likely men’s sports are cut entirely,
administrations will underfund most women’s sports while keeping them running
at zombie-like levels.
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Division II and III, which do not have big time football, have
actually added men’s programs in “non-revenue” sports in recent years.
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Nonetheless, even critics admit it has radically changed the
landscape of women’s sports in favor of more participation (if not full
acceptance)
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The article on Div. 1 Conference Media Guides shows this as well –
women are portrayed in active poses in uniform 2004, whereas they were in make
up and suggestive poses in 1990.
Women’s Professional Sports
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As Branded, the excellent ESPN documentary points out (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4zFhbxIzq7o
) female professional athletes often make very little playing their sport (as
do the majority of professional baseball players and those in low-spectator
men’s sports)
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For the most successful women athletes, the amount of money they
bring in sponsorship dwarfs the amount they make on the court/field/track
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This goes disproportionately to women who conform to (white,
Western) standards of beauty
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This tends to mean lean, but not particularly muscle-y; straight
hair, often blonde; single and interested in men
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Women’s tennis players almost always lead in endorsements and
earnings
»
Anna Kornakova is the prime example: she led all female athletes
in endorsement dollars for about half a decade (when she was around 20), but
never won a major tournament.
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Male athletes’ endorsements dollars occur almost independently of
their physical attractiveness
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Although, for African American athletes, appearing to be “well
spoken” (a racially loaded term) seems to matter (more on this in future
weeks).
Women’s Professional Sports (cont.)
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Women’s sports do extremely well during the Olympics; women’s
national soccer team does well during World Cup
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It seems nationalism provides a rooting interest that brings in
male viewers
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Indeed, for Women’s World Cup finals involving the US, 61% of
viewers were male
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Women’s collegiate basketball Final Four draws very well at about
3.5 million viewers; Women’s College World Series actually passed Men’s College
world series (averaging 1.8 million vs. 1.4 million)
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Both utilize the popular tournament formats (March Madness for
basketball; double elimination pools for softball)
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Women’s professional leagues and individual sports (outside of
tennis and figure skating) have trouble drawing sufficient attendance and
television viewership numbers
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The key is men (generally) will not watch women’s professional
sports in large numbers – and thus they do not get talked about in the media,
thus men don’t watch them, etc…
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Figure skating is interesting because it is a sustainable
television product with relatively low levels of male viewership
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Women’s figure skating is also much, much, more popular than men’s
figure skating
Women Professional Sports (cont.)
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The rise of Ronda Rousey was genuinely a new thing in the world of
sports
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She was a former Olympic judo medalist, who received basically no
income through her years of being trained by her mother (also an Olympian, who
would wake Ronda every morning by armbarring her) and professional wrestler,
“Judo” Gene Lebell
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When she started, there were no women in MMA’s major promotion,
the Ultimate Fighting Championship
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Strikeforce, a smaller promotion, is where women’s fighting
received the most sustained attention
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When UFC bought Strikeforce, UFC President Dana White said there
were no plans to start a women’s division
»
Rousey’s popularity led to a “one off” fight, then eventually
multiple women’s divisions with champions
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While the fact she is white and blonde was part of her appeal, she
doesn’t have a traditionally “feminine” body shape
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She was perhaps the first female athlete to have the persona
similar to that of Mike Tyson or early career George Foreman: an unbelievably
dominant champion who finishes fights quickly and with great violence (until
her last fight).
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She is also (while maybe not a great actor) a great in interviews
and in front of the camera, and is a “straight shooter”
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She was by far the UFC’s most important fighter in an important
transitional period.
Women and Athletic Activity
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While gym memberships are around 50/50 male female, there is a
gendered division
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Men dominate free weight usage and recreational sports leagues,
and are the majority on strength machines; women dominate in “group classes”
(apart from CrossFit): yoga, spin, SoulCycle, Zumba, fitness boxing, pilates,
etc…
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While most people, men and women, who go the gym care about their
appearance and/or health (or perhaps enjoy the sensation of working out), women
generally face greater societal pressure to “look good” in ways most men do not
•
That is perhaps why women predominate in more total body activity;
men in “competitive” sports (and comparing weights lifted to other men is
competitive) where a full physique development is not the primary goal.
Women and in Sports Support Jobs
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This is one we will talk about again in a few lectures, but
besides men dominating professional athletics, they dominated sports media as
well
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It wasn’t until 1975 that a woman reporter first entered an NFL
Locker Room
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Most announcing teams for men’s sports are all male; as are many
“pregame” shows
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Women most often appear as “sideline” reporters
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A prominent exception is Suzyn Waldman, who is a former Broadway
singer and is the color commentator (as opposed to play by play) on Yankees
radio broadcasts; Jessica Mendoza (former softball player) on ESPN Sunday Night
Baseball
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Where as men regularly coach women’s teams, rarely do women coach
men’s teams, even at the collegiate level or high school level
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Becky Hammon was hired last year as the NBA’s first female bench
coach – despite the fact that some of history’s most successful basketball
coaches are women (such as Tennessee’s Pat Summitt)
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Women also only began appearing as referees in the last 5 to 10
years in men’s sports, despite the fact that they performed very well in
women’s sports for decades.
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Other ancillary professions – agents, general managers, sports
medicine, apparel executives, and surgeons, trainers – are overwhlemingly
dominated by men as well.
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Here, glass ceilings are very much alive
Bodies
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The fundamental dividing line in sports is between men and women’s
bodies
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Those with men’s bodies go to men’s sports; women’s bodies to
women sports. Each has entirely different record books and championships
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The issue is, of course, that around .1 to .2% of people are
“intersex” in some manner (“not XX or XY” and “XXY” are the most common)
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Which means about 11 million people world wide, which is a lot of
people
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The Olympics has long performed invasive “gender verification
tests” on “suspect” female athletes (before 1992, they performed them on all
female athletes)
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These tests are expensive, and most experts agree that chromosomal
and hormonal tests are often inconclusive and incomplete at best
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One of the recent high profile cases was South African runner
Caster Semenya, who basically got tried in the press because the International
Association of Athletic Federations let leak that they were testing her.
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Occasionally, stupid ideas are put forward that intersex athletes
competing as women should have to take testosterone suppressant or other such
nonsense.
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Transgender individuals have only been allowed to compete in the
Olympics since 2004, and have to have undergone complete genital
reconstruction, be legally recognized as their competition gender, and
undergone two years of hormonal therapy
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Again, these are mostly arbitrary thresholds. There is no
definite tests for “man-ness” and “woman-ness” – those are social constructions
Heteronormativity and
Homonormativity (cont.)
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As mentioned in the fandom lecture, the culture surrounding men’s
sports in particular is incredibly “heteronormative” (ie, assumes that everyone
“normal” is straight and shares the values of “traditional” sexuality and
lifestyle)
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For male athletes in particular, it is assumed that one of the
rewards of sporting success is becoming more attractive to women, and that male
athletes should pursue women and brag about it
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It is also assumed that women should be attracted to male athletes
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It is a culture that for too long led to unchecked domestic and
sexual violence by a segment of male athletes against women
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Sports are also the last place where male physical aggression
outside of play is considered by some to be “OK”
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In September 2015, Washington Nationals closer Jonathan Papelbon
(age 34) assaulted his teammate (and likely-league MVP) Byrce Harper (age 22)
in the dugout for supposedly not hustling on a fly ball
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Some commentators said it was necessary to teach Harper a lesson
about “the right way” to play; others noted you cannot attack people in your
workplace
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There was tremendous fear and bigotry expressed by some male
athletes about having a gay teammate
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Many were uncomfortable with the thought of them being a potential
sexual object for other men (despite years of objectifying women)
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Some common locker practices that involved touching and nudity
were suddenly given a different meaning to some
Heteronormativity and
Homonormativity (cont.)
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Thus, as the Michael Sam saga showed, even being the reigning
Defensive Player of the Year in what was universally considered college
football’s best conference would keep coaches from giving a legitimate shot
based on fears of “team unity”
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Michael Sam kissing his boyfriend after being drafted also showed
that many in the male sports world are “OK” with a gay teammate only to the
extent he “closets” his sexuality and keeps it “private”
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Of course, heterosexual athletes kiss their partners all of the
time in public without repercussion or comment.
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Michael Sam is undoubtedly not the first “gay”
professional football player.
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Many athletes have come out, but almost always after career is
over.
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Female athletes, even from the beginning of the 20th
century, were often faced with charges of mannish-ness: at first merely for
being seen as not demure enough, but later for being suspected of what was then
considered the “disorder” of lesbianism
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This of course was a bind for actual lesbian athletes and coaches,
because so stigmatized was the label, that they could never express in public
their sexuality for fear of losing their scholarship or job (in fact, this
continued well into the 1990s)
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In the last five years, it has been much more possible for female
athletes to “come out”, even if all prejudice has not disappeared
Heteronormativity and
Homonormativity (cont.)
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What then is homonormativity?
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It is the notion that the gay and lesbian agenda that gets the
most support tends to be very white and upper/middle class, and focused not on
changing the structures of society, but instead on gays and lesbians gaining
acceptance in existing structures
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So the Michael Sam example is a good one: he didn’t seek to
primarily change the culture of the NFL or its economically exploitative nature
(at least not initially), he just wanted to play the game as it was.
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Another example is a debate surrounding the “Gay Games”: whether
it should be a “normal” sporting event, but for GLBTQ people; or whether it
should be a “queer” event with a different set of priorities
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This connects to the idea, key to queer theory, that simply adding
two more categories to “normal” sexual identity – ie “gay” and “lesbian” –
still leaves out a lot of people who do not conform to those labels, just like
they do not conform to “straight”
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It also recognizes the from a post-colonial/minor perspective,
that not every group shares the same categories and meanings of sexuality as
those in the Anglophone tradition do.
Conclusion
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Obviously, while far from perfect, institutional change (ie, the
implementation and enforcement of Title IX) has brought about wide-scale
changes for women’s sports and women in general
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Title IX was obviously influenced by feminist social theory
present in the late 1960s – that women could do many of the same things men can
do if given the opportunity
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It is also obvious how hard it is for women and queer athletes to
access the highest levels of professional sports riches, because money in
sports is organized around “male (heterosexual) enjoyment” of physical
competition, male (heterosexual) bonding and sexualized women’s bodies
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Although there are exceptions, those that do not conform to that
structure of enjoyment (be it men, women, or other) tend to not do as well
financially, in spite of whatever their accomplishments might be
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Theorizing that structure of enjoyment: be it as patriarchy,
heteronormativity, embodiment, or homonormativity, is a major focus of the
social science of sports.