Race and Sports
Race
•
As you already know: race is just a construct, not biologically
significant
– Other
countries besides the US have much less rigid (and more of a spectrum) approach
to race instead of our hard and fast categories (many places also emphasize
ethnicity over race)
•
Colonial powers often did not mind teaching (many) of their games
to colonized subjects; just wouldn’t play directly against them or think much
of their ability.
•
In the US, baseball put up a color barrier to appease southerners
in 1889.
– Prior to
this, there were actually African Americans in professional baseball such as
Moses Fleetwood Walker
•
Latinos never completely shut out; Luis Castro played
professionally in early 1900s.
Breaking Color Barriers
•
In English football, there wasn’t formal segregation to contend
with, but still lots of prejudice
– First
black professional footballer in England around the turn of the 20th
century; first to play for national team was Viv Anderson
in 1978
• By
contrast, Brazil had its first black national team footballer in 1914
• England
still hasn’t had a South Asian footballer on the men’s national side, despite a
sizable population of those of South Asian descent
•
In baseball, it was Jackie Robinson in the National League with
the Brooklyn Dodgers (April 15, 1947); followed by Larry Doby
with the Cleveland Indians of the American League on July 5 of that year
•
Frederick Pollard was a quarterback for the Akron NFL team in
1921, but there were not black quarterbacks who were regular starters until
Marlin Briscoe in 1968
– There has
been at least one every year since, but most have had short careers
– There
have long been higher numbers of black QBs in college, but many asked to switch
positions when drafted in the NFL (some went to Canadian Football League where
they were able to play quarterback)
• In fact,
that was the path that led the first modern-era, black Hall of Fame QB,
Warren Moon, to the NFL
– Michael Vick
was the first black QB drafted number one overall in 2000!
“Racial” Predominance
•
Professional Football (68%) and Basketball (74%) quickly became
dominated by African Americans not too long after founding;
– Baseball
was 20% African American in 1986; down to 8.8% today (whereas Latin players are
around 30%)
– Side
Note: Baseball also clearly favors warm weather players; Mike Trout, 2014 AL
MVP, was passed over until late in the first round of the draft because he was
from New Jersey.
•
At the NCAA level, African American and white players are about
45% each of football scholarship athletes; African Americans about 60% of both
men’s and women’s basketball
– Outside
of those sports, white athletes dominate all other sports to the tune of 80%;
• Whites
are also about 90% of men’s and women’s coaches; 90% of athletic directors
(almost all of whom are also male)
– Hispanics/Latinos,
who are around 20% of the population, are only 4% of the student athletes (and only
2% of football players)
Various Theories as to Why
•
Steering/Stacking/Profiling – The idea that athletic kids from a
community will get steered into the most popular/common sports in their
community
–
Many NFL players were also wrestlers, baseball players, track
athletes, basketball guards, and/or soccer players; but around eighth grade
they are advised to specialize in football
• If a
fraction of elite college level wide receivers, defensive secondary, and
running backs choose soccer instead American Football, very likely U.S. could
win a World Cup within a generation
– Similarly,
U.S. could probably dominate men’s volleyball (in which we are already pretty
good) if a fraction of our elite tall athletes tried it.
–
Stacking also occurs at the level of position. NFL quarterbacks, kickers, punters,
linebackers and offensive linemen (in particular left tackle and center) are
much more likely to be white than other positions .
• Although
NCAA track and field is majority white, sprinters/long jumpers are largely
black.
Various
Theories (cont.)
•
Sports culture
– Despite
horrific Jim Crow laws (and de facto segregation in the Northern U.S.), sports
has been a part of African American communities (and in some ways, the central
part) for just as long as they have been a part of white communities.
• As the
article shows, that much like in white communities of the early 20th
century, it was well-to-do African American families that dominated local
sports institutions (such as YWCA), which helped feed players into the
semi-professional, and eventually professional ranks.
– And like
in white communities, this semi-Victorian eliteness
kept women from playing sports; however, the eventual prevalence of YWCA opened
up new opportunities for Black women.
• To this
day, Pop Warner football remains very prominent in many largely African
American Communities (for example, Overtown in Miami,
where that Pop Warner team goes years between losses)
– Most
Hispanics/Latinos in US are first/second generation and aren’t led by peer
pressure/tradition to put kids into sports in an insanely early age
• Florida
is the hotbed of Hispanic/Latino baseball, because it draws much more strongly
from the baseball-heavy Caribbean than the rest of the country (which draws
most heavily from Mexico)
Various
Theories (cont.)
•
Economic Resources
– Middle
and Upper Class whites tend to dominate sports where self-funding is very
important
• There is
a strong Pop Warner and travel team basketball pipeline serving African
American communities, even poor ones (and baseball in places)
– Rowing,
Lacrosse, Swimming, Water Polo, Volleyball, Soccer, Softball, Golf, and Tennis require
huge outlays of money and time to become visible enough to get a scholarship –
money those from poorer communities do not have.
» Many
parents spend $5500 a year, some up to $10,000 , plus
countless hours spent on the road trying to get kids noticed. This creates a barrier of entry for these
smaller sports.
» Only 2%
of high school athletes get a college athletic scholarship, fewer still go pro and
get rich
• Too many
people pin their hopes on this
• Another
difference: basketball and football are almost always full scholarships;
baseball and these other sports are not necessarily.
– Unless
you are a high round baseball draft pick out of high school eligible for a
signing bonus, a football scholarship is a lot safer of a bet than toiling in
the minors for years at sub-minimum wage.
» However,
baseball players who make the majors and stick are much better paid than other
professionals.
Athlete Image
•
As mentioned previously, many athletes make a good portion of
their money from endorsements
– Men’s
Tennis Players, Men’s Golfers, NBA player’s, top soccer players, and Mahendra Dhoni (Indian
Cricketer), Maria Sharapova (Tennis), Usain Bolt (Track) lead the global endorsement pack.
•
Tennis and (especially) golf have much lower US viewership numbers
than Football and Basketball, but attract affluent consumers – thus those stars
get huge dollar luxury brand endorsements
– This situation is especially fraught thing for
minority athletes
•
There is a double standard, wherein to get the endorsement dollars,
they (generally) have to not only excel on the field, but behave better than
white athletes
–
In the US, there is also a racist expectation that a big time
African American athlete endorser is “well spoken” – which means he/she doesn’t
use any slang and attempts to sound “white”
Athlete
Image (cont.)
– Just like
in so many parts of society, being a minority in sports means being associated
with “criminality”, “thugishness”, “playing for the
money, not the love”, and a “lack of
respect/bad sportsmanship”, where every move is under a microscope in ways it
is not for white players
•
Again, to give yet another baseball example: in October, 2015, the Dodgers Chase Utley
(American) slid way off the base paths to try to slide tackle Reuben Tejada (Panama) of
the Mets to break up a double play. Tejada got his leg broken
–
Many old school baseball commentators (as well social media commenters) praised Utley’s “hustle,” “heart” and “hard,
but fair play.”
»
The same commenters get really upset
when Latino players , like Yasiel
Puig, flip their bat or run the bases too slowly
after a home run.
– In the
UK, early on, this dynamic played out along class (and sometimes religious)
lines more than race.
Athlete
Image (cont.)
•
When Jackie Robinson became the first African American to break
the baseball color line in baseball, he had to promise to basically never show
emotion, never lose him temper, and be ultra humble
– It has
been the model ever since (maybe until recently)
•
Michael Jordan and Magic Johnson, two of the NBA’s all time
endorsement leaders in adjusted dollars, basically defined the two paths to
this
– Magic
used his happy demeanor
and smile to appear very non-threatening (Shaq used a slightly
more goofy version of this persona)
– Jordan
used consummate professional (with a little self-deprecating humor in
commercials) – Bo Jackson had a similar campaign that Nike managed
•
LeBron is a
little bit of both: more approachable than Jordan, but more competitive than
Magic
– Meanwhile,
Larry Bird did well and he was basically a grumpy jerk.
Athlete
Image (cont.)
•
A relatively small number of black athletes who don’t go for the
non-threatening and/or “professional” route have achieved endorsement success
– Muhammad Ali and Charles Barkley combined
brashness with their quick senses of humor to be very high profile
• Muhammad
Ali of course, unlike Barkley, converted to Islam and went to prison as a
conscientious/political objector to the Vietnam War.
– While it
didn’t endear him to all segments of American society (at least right away), it
did make him the most popular athlete in the entire world
– Dennis
Rodman was a minor success (more in personal appearances than big contracts) by being really,
really weird and aggressive
– In
general though, opinions not palpable to the vocal segment of ultra
conservative white male sports fans were quickly silenced
Athlete
Image (cont.)
•
Not since the 1960’s have US athletes (most notably NBA players)
been so outspoken on social issues than the last decade
– Hurricane
Katrina (and how deeply unpopular Bush was after that) was a turning point; as
was Obama providing a new role model (while also being a huge sports fan).
– Social
Media also gave athlete’s their own platform – could speak out on issues they
maybe weren’t asked about in press conferences
• NBA and
WNBA coaches in particular (at least successful ones) are seemingly more
appreciative of diversity than any other group of coaches. (Perhaps because in
no other league do star players matter so much).
– Regular
media was getting more diverse (and included more former athletes who were not
white men) and so someone would take their side instead of repeating “the
conventional wisdom”
• In fact,
speaking out seems to make athletes more popular with younger consumers, who
buy shoes in particular (but also jerseys)
Athlete
Image (cont.)
•
Colin Kaepernick becomes the focus of
attention
– He was a
second round draft pick of San Francisco, takes over from Alex Smith during his
second year in a season the 49ers reach the Superbowl.
– His
threat to run the ball (as well as throw) is tough for defenses to deal with at
first because it is different
• After
year three, defenses get better at containing him plus he is slowed by injuries
– So while
no longer a star like Year 2 and 3, still a viable QB and certainly better than
all but 2-3 backup QBs.
•
During the 2016 Preseason,
due to events like the Trayvon and Ferguson
shootings/acquittals, began to sit during national anthem .
Changed to kneel after talking to former solider/NFL player to show respect to
veterans but still protest the treatment of people of color in the US.
Athlete
Image (cont.)
• Predictably,
“old school” commentators (and internet commenters)
called Kaepernick disrespectful to troops/traitor and
came out with the “stick to sports” argument.
– A lot of
“listener” participation in sports media is expressing outrage along a very
small number of lines. Some of those
have to do with play on the field/coaching; but portion of it is venting about
athlete (usually minority athlete) “entitlement” (which is often another form
of resentment).
» Once Kaepernick started the protests, there was a large body of
people (mostly older, white men) ready to be bombastically offended.
– In years
past, there would literally have been no one defend him in media. But now there was.
» In fact,
more players joined in. Even in college
and high school.
• Being an
election year, this spills over from the realm of sports to the political news
cycle – especially when one candidate pointed to Kaepernick
as example of why America needed to be made great again.
• After
2016, Kaepernick’s rookie contract concluded with the
49ers. Despite being obviously good
enough to at least be a backup (and on some teams start), no team signs him.
– The most
generous read of this is NFL teams “don’t want distractions” (though they will
all take players with histories of assault and domestic abuse); the other read
is that much more conservative NFL coaches/owners are deliberately punishing him
» Probably
a mix of both
Athlete
Image (cont.)
•
A corollary of the stacking/steering/profiling phenomenon is that
most non-black athletes who excel at roles/sports dominated by African
Americans are almost always referred to as “cerebral”, “smart”, “great
technique”, or “crafty” (or in football, the player is called a “Wes Welker”
type receiver).
– The
implication, of course, is that these white athletes use “brains” and “hard
work” to get the best of supposedly more athletic, but “dumber/lazier” African
American athletes
• This is
basically the subject of the article about Jeremy Lin assigned for today
– Similarly,
black quarterbacks in particular are often referred to as “freak athletes”, not
“cerebral”
• Of
course, this is utter nonsense: Packers WR Jordy
Nelson was an elite track athlete and countless African American athletes are
unbelievable geniuses with an insatiable drive to perfect their craft (see
Warren Moon, Ray Lewis)
– To give
one example from baseball: Tony Gwynn was the first player to use video
technology to pick apart minute details of his swing – he paid for the entire
setup himself and maybe worked harder than any player in history.
Leagues Policing Behavior
•
Leagues (as well as the NCAA) tend to take an extremely
paternalistic attitude towards their players.
– They
either believe (or think their customers believe) in the remnants of sports as
a showcase of amateur honor
•
There is a constant reference back to the “good old days” in
sports, when people allegedly played with passionate quiet dignity
–
Keep in mind,
many old sports “heroes”
were hardly role models (Babe Ruth ate, drank, dated women to excess; Ty Cobb
repeatedly injured opponents and was a horrific racist)
»
This isn’t confined to sports: every generation as it ages thinks the
younger generation has been raised to be “soft” and that they do not know the
value of hard work
•
My parents generation said this about my generation; and judging
by Facebook, my generation is starting to think that
about you
•
Let me just say: the kids have been, and always will be,
alright. Each generation 1) is never as
bad as thought 2) matures as it ages (shocking!)
Leagues Policing Behavior
•
Until last year, the NCAA forbid giving athletes extra food (even
though they practiced all the time, and studied the rest) – just to maintain
the amateurism status that many of its athletes cannot afford.
– Many of
the “improper benefit” cases have involved African American students from
low-income households
•
The NFL has basically banned all forms of celebration but hugging
and high-fiving teammates
– It was
almost always in reaction to celebrations by African American players; the
reaction against it was almost always by white fans and media personalities
•
The NFL also forces players to be available for media interviews,
but players would be penalized by their coaches (and talked about in the media)
if they actually said anything interesting
– They try
to enforce this with fines, most notably with Marshawn
Lynch, who clearly was extremely uncomfortable talking to the media.
•
In response to increased presence of tattoos and “thug clothes”
worn by NBA players, in the early 2000s, the NBA instituted a dress code
(basically a men’s suit) for players who were on the bench but not in uniform
– The irony
of this, of course, is that the NBA embraced hip hop in their marketing
beginning in the 1990s.
Offensive Mascots
•
In the US, team mascots often promoted fierceness or strength, so
many schools and teams choose Native American “inspired” names often with
offensive logos.
–
Most all of these are gone, but the single worst name still
exists: the Washington Redskins
• Their
owner, Dan Snyder, is a gigantic tool who is one of the worst owners in sports
(and that says something because there are a lot of rich idiots who own sports
teams)
– As of
yesterday, the worst drawing is gone: The Cleveland Indian’s Chief Wahoo
Coaches and Owners
•
One of the startling things up and down athletics is that
organizations are white at the top
– Although
the NFL, NBA and college football are beginning to improve a little at the
coach level (especially at the assistant ranks); front offices, ownership and
athletic directors offices are still overwhelmingly white
• This is
especially a sharp contrast in football and basketball, where the players are
majority African American
– Analytics
is in some ways making this worse: most African Americans who enter front
offices or coaching were players first.
Those positions are increasingly going to analytic type persons,
• Which then brings up the additional barriers to entry that black
and Hispanic students have to Science and Technology disciplines.
What to make of it?
•
Foucault/Butler on Discipline and
embodiment?
•
Bourdieu on class position?
•
Said on Orientalizing discourse?
•
Hall on inferential racism? Figures in media
portrayals?
•
Political economy?
•
Strategy vs. Tactics?
•
How could you measure impacts of racial disparity (and remedies)
with positivism?