Race and Sports

 

Race

         As you already know: race is just a construct, not biologically significant

     Other countries besides the US have much less rigid (and more of a spectrum) approach to race instead of our hard and fast categories (many places also emphasize ethnicity over race)

         Colonial powers often did not mind teaching (many) of their games to colonized subjects; just wouldn’t play directly against them or think much of their ability.

         In the US, baseball put up a color barrier to appease southerners in 1889.

     Prior to this, there were actually African Americans in professional baseball such as Moses Fleetwood Walker

     Latinos never completely shut out; Luis Castro played professionally in early 1900s.

 

Breaking Color Barriers

          In English football, there wasn’t formal segregation to contend with, but still lots of prejudice

      First black professional footballer in England around the turn of the 20th century; first to play for national team was Viv Anderson in 1978

      By contrast, Brazil had its first black national team footballer in 1914

      England still hasn’t had a South Asian footballer on the men’s national side, despite a sizable population of those of South Asian descent

          In baseball, it was Jackie Robinson in the National League with the Brooklyn Dodgers (April 15, 1947); followed by Larry Doby with the Cleveland Indians of the American League on July 5 of that year

          Frederick Pollard was a quarterback for the Akron NFL team in 1921, but there were not black quarterbacks who were regular starters until Marlin Briscoe in 1968

      There has been at least one every year since, but most have had short careers

      There have long been higher numbers of black QBs in college, but many asked to switch positions when drafted in the NFL (some went to Canadian Football League where they were able to play quarterback)

      In fact, that was the path that led the first  modern-era, black Hall of Fame QB, Warren Moon, to the NFL

      Michael Vick was the first black QB drafted number one overall in 2000!

 

“Racial” Predominance

         Professional Football (68%) and Basketball (74%) quickly became dominated by African Americans not too long after founding;

     Baseball was 20% African American in 1986; down to 8.8% today (whereas Latin players are around 30%)

     Side Note: Baseball also clearly favors warm weather players; Mike Trout, 2014 AL MVP, was passed over until late in the first round of the draft because he was from New Jersey.

         At the NCAA level, African American and white players are about 45% each of football scholarship athletes;  African Americans about 60% of both men’s and women’s basketball

     Outside of those sports, white athletes dominate all other sports to the tune of 80%;

     Whites are also about 90% of men’s and women’s coaches; 90% of athletic directors (almost all of whom are also male)

     Hispanics/Latinos, who are around 20% of the population, are only 4% of the student athletes (and only 2% of football players)

 

Various Theories as to Why

         Steering/Stacking/Profiling – The idea that athletic kids from a community will get steered into the most popular/common sports in their community

    Many NFL players were also wrestlers, baseball players, track athletes, basketball guards, and/or soccer players; but around eighth grade they are advised to specialize in football

     If a fraction of elite college level wide receivers, defensive secondary, and running backs choose soccer instead American Football, very likely U.S. could win a World Cup within a generation

  Similarly, U.S. could probably dominate men’s volleyball (in which we are already pretty good) if a fraction of our elite tall athletes tried it.

    Stacking also occurs at the level of position.  NFL quarterbacks, kickers, punters, linebackers and offensive linemen (in particular left tackle and center) are much more likely to be white than other positions .

     Although NCAA track and field is majority white, sprinters/long jumpers are largely black.

 

 

Various Theories (cont.)

          Sports culture

      Despite horrific Jim Crow laws (and de facto segregation in the Northern U.S.), sports has been a part of African American communities (and in some ways, the central part) for just as long as they have been a part of white communities.

      As the article shows, that much like in white communities of the early 20th century, it was well-to-do African American families that dominated local sports institutions (such as YWCA), which helped feed players into the semi-professional, and eventually professional ranks.

    And like in white communities, this semi-Victorian eliteness kept women from playing sports; however, the eventual prevalence of YWCA opened up new opportunities for Black women.

      To this day, Pop Warner football remains very prominent in many largely African American Communities (for example, Overtown in Miami, where that Pop Warner team goes years between losses)

      Most Hispanics/Latinos in US are first/second generation and aren’t led by peer pressure/tradition to put kids into sports in an insanely early age

      Florida is the hotbed of Hispanic/Latino baseball, because it draws much more strongly from the baseball-heavy Caribbean than the rest of the country (which draws most heavily from Mexico)

 

Various Theories (cont.)

          Economic Resources

      Middle and Upper Class whites tend to dominate sports where self-funding is very important

      There is a strong Pop Warner and travel team basketball pipeline serving African American communities, even poor ones (and baseball in places)

    Rowing, Lacrosse, Swimming, Water Polo, Volleyball, Soccer, Softball, Golf,  and Tennis require huge outlays of money and time to become visible enough to get a scholarship – money those from poorer communities do not have.
»    Many parents spend $5500 a year, some up to $10,000 , plus countless hours spent on the road trying to get kids noticed.   This creates a barrier of entry for these smaller sports.
»    Only 2% of high school athletes get a college athletic  scholarship, fewer still go pro and get rich

      Too many people pin their hopes on this

      Another difference: basketball and football are almost always full scholarships; baseball and these other sports are not necessarily.

    Unless you are a high round baseball draft pick out of high school eligible for a signing bonus, a football scholarship is a lot safer of a bet than toiling in the minors for years at sub-minimum wage.
»    However, baseball players who make the majors and stick are much better paid than other professionals.

 

Athlete Image

         As mentioned previously, many athletes make a good portion of their money from endorsements

     Men’s Tennis Players, Men’s Golfers, NBA player’s, top soccer players, and Mahendra Dhoni (Indian Cricketer), Maria Sharapova (Tennis), Usain Bolt (Track) lead the global endorsement pack.

     Tennis and (especially) golf have much lower US viewership numbers than Football and Basketball, but attract affluent consumers – thus those stars get huge dollar luxury brand endorsements

      This situation is especially fraught thing for minority athletes

     There is a double standard, wherein to get the endorsement dollars, they (generally) have to not only excel on the field, but behave better than white athletes

   In the US, there is also a racist expectation that a big time African American athlete endorser is “well spoken” – which means he/she doesn’t use any slang and attempts to sound “white”

 

Athlete Image (cont.)

     Just like in so many parts of society, being a minority in sports means being associated with “criminality”, “thugishness”, “playing for the money, not the love”,  and a “lack of respect/bad sportsmanship”, where every move is under a microscope in ways it is not for white players

     Again, to give yet another baseball example:  in October, 2015, the Dodgers Chase Utley (American) slid way off the base paths to try to slide tackle Reuben Tejada  (Panama) of the Mets to break up a double play.   Tejada got his leg broken

   Many old school baseball commentators (as well social media commenters) praised Utley’s “hustle,” “heart” and “hard, but fair play.”
»   The same commenters get really upset when Latino players , like Yasiel Puig, flip their bat or run the bases too slowly after a home run.

     In the UK, early on, this dynamic played out along class (and sometimes religious) lines more than race.

 

Athlete Image (cont.)

         When Jackie Robinson became the first African American to break the baseball color line in baseball, he had to promise to basically never show emotion, never lose him temper, and be ultra humble

     It has been the model ever since (maybe until recently)

         Michael Jordan and Magic Johnson, two of the NBA’s all time endorsement leaders in adjusted dollars, basically defined the two paths to this

     Magic used his happy demeanor  and smile to appear very non-threatening (Shaq used a slightly more goofy version of this persona)

     Jordan used consummate professional (with a little self-deprecating humor in commercials) – Bo Jackson had a similar campaign that Nike managed

     LeBron is a little bit of both: more approachable than Jordan, but more competitive than Magic

     Meanwhile, Larry Bird did well and he was basically a grumpy jerk.

 

Athlete Image (cont.)

          A relatively small number of black athletes who don’t go for the non-threatening and/or “professional” route have achieved endorsement success

       Muhammad Ali and Charles Barkley combined brashness with their quick senses of humor to be very high profile

      Muhammad Ali of course, unlike Barkley, converted to Islam and went to prison as a conscientious/political objector to the Vietnam War.

    While it didn’t endear him to all segments of American society (at least right away), it did make him the most popular athlete in the entire world

      Dennis Rodman was a minor success (more in personal appearances than big contracts)  by being really, really weird and aggressive

      In general though, opinions not palpable to the vocal segment of ultra conservative white male sports fans were quickly silenced

 

Athlete Image (cont.)

          Not since the 1960’s have US athletes (most notably NBA players) been so outspoken on social issues than the last decade

      Hurricane Katrina (and how deeply unpopular Bush was after that) was a turning point; as was Obama providing a new role model (while also being a huge sports fan).

      Social Media also gave athlete’s their own platform – could speak out on issues they maybe weren’t asked about in press conferences

      NBA and WNBA coaches in particular (at least successful ones) are seemingly more appreciative of diversity than any other group of coaches. (Perhaps because in no other league do star players matter so much).

      Regular media was getting more diverse (and included more former athletes who were not white men) and so someone would take their side instead of repeating “the conventional wisdom”

      In fact, speaking out seems to make athletes more popular with younger consumers, who buy shoes in particular (but also jerseys)

 

Athlete Image (cont.)

         Colin Kaepernick becomes the focus of attention

     He was a second round draft pick of San Francisco, takes over from Alex Smith during his second year in a season the 49ers reach the Superbowl.

     His threat to run the ball (as well as throw) is tough for defenses to deal with at first because it is different

     After year three, defenses get better at containing him plus he is slowed by injuries

   So while no longer a star like Year 2 and 3, still a viable QB and certainly better than all but 2-3 backup QBs. 

          During the 2016 Preseason, due to events like the Trayvon and Ferguson shootings/acquittals, began to sit during national anthem . Changed to kneel after talking to former solider/NFL player to show respect to veterans but still protest the treatment of people of color in the US.

 

 

Athlete Image (cont.)

      Predictably, “old school” commentators (and internet commenters) called Kaepernick disrespectful to troops/traitor and came out with the “stick to sports” argument.

    A lot of “listener” participation in sports media is expressing outrage along a very small number of lines.   Some of those have to do with play on the field/coaching; but portion of it is venting about athlete (usually minority athlete) “entitlement” (which is often another form of resentment).
»    Once Kaepernick started the protests, there was a large body of people (mostly older, white men) ready to be bombastically offended.
    In years past, there would literally have been no one defend him in media.   But now there was.
»    In fact, more players joined in.  Even in college and high school.

      Being an election year, this spills over from the realm of sports to the political news cycle – especially when one candidate pointed to Kaepernick as example of why America needed to be made great again.

      After 2016, Kaepernick’s rookie contract concluded with the 49ers.  Despite being obviously good enough to at least be a backup (and on some teams start), no team signs him.

    The most generous read of this is NFL teams “don’t want distractions” (though they will all take players with histories of assault and domestic abuse); the other read is that much more conservative NFL coaches/owners  are deliberately punishing him
»    Probably a mix of both

 

Athlete Image (cont.)

          A corollary of the stacking/steering/profiling phenomenon is that most non-black athletes who excel at roles/sports dominated by African Americans are almost always referred to as “cerebral”, “smart”, “great technique”, or “crafty” (or in football, the player is called a “Wes Welker” type receiver).

      The implication, of course, is that these white athletes use “brains” and “hard work” to get the best of supposedly more athletic, but “dumber/lazier” African American athletes

      This is basically the subject of the article about Jeremy Lin assigned for today

      Similarly, black quarterbacks in particular are often referred to as “freak athletes”, not “cerebral”

      Of course, this is utter nonsense: Packers WR Jordy Nelson was an elite track athlete and countless African American athletes are unbelievable geniuses with an insatiable drive to perfect their craft (see Warren Moon, Ray Lewis)

    To give one example from baseball: Tony Gwynn was the first player to use video technology to pick apart minute details of his swing – he paid for the entire setup himself and maybe worked harder than any player in history.

 

Leagues Policing Behavior

         Leagues (as well as the NCAA) tend to take an extremely paternalistic attitude towards their players.

     They either believe (or think their customers believe) in the remnants of sports as a showcase of amateur honor

     There is a constant reference back to the “good old days” in sports, when people allegedly played with passionate quiet dignity

   Keep in mind,  many  old sports “heroes” were hardly role models (Babe Ruth ate, drank, dated women to excess; Ty Cobb repeatedly injured opponents and was a horrific racist)
»   This isn’t confined to sports: every generation as it ages  thinks the younger generation has been raised to be “soft” and that they do not know the value of hard work

     My parents generation said this about my generation; and judging by Facebook, my generation is starting to think that about you

     Let me just say: the kids have been, and always will be, alright.  Each generation 1) is never as bad as thought 2) matures as it ages (shocking!)

 

 

 

Leagues Policing Behavior

          Until last year, the NCAA forbid giving athletes extra food (even though they practiced all the time, and studied the rest) – just to maintain the amateurism status that many of its athletes cannot afford.

      Many of the “improper benefit” cases have involved African American students from low-income households

          The NFL has basically banned all forms of celebration but hugging and high-fiving teammates

      It was almost always in reaction to celebrations by African American players; the reaction against it was almost always by white fans and media personalities

          The NFL also forces players to be available for media interviews, but players would be penalized by their coaches (and talked about in the media) if they actually said anything interesting

      They try to enforce this with fines, most notably with Marshawn Lynch, who clearly was extremely uncomfortable talking to the media.

          In response to increased presence of tattoos and “thug clothes” worn by NBA players, in the early 2000s, the NBA instituted a dress code (basically a men’s suit) for players who were on the bench but not in uniform

      The irony of this, of course, is that the NBA embraced hip hop in their marketing beginning in the 1990s.

 

Offensive Mascots

         In the US, team mascots often promoted fierceness or strength, so many schools and teams choose Native American “inspired” names often with offensive logos.

    Most all of these are gone, but the single worst name still exists: the Washington Redskins

     Their owner, Dan Snyder, is a gigantic tool who is one of the worst owners in sports (and that says something because there are a lot of rich idiots who own sports teams)

   As of yesterday, the worst drawing is gone: The Cleveland Indian’s Chief Wahoo

 

 

Coaches and Owners

         One of the startling things up and down athletics is that organizations are white at the top

     Although the NFL, NBA and college football are beginning to improve a little at the coach level (especially at the assistant ranks); front offices, ownership and athletic directors offices are still overwhelmingly white

     This is especially a sharp contrast in football and basketball, where the players are majority African American

     Analytics is in some ways making this worse: most African Americans who enter front offices or coaching were players first.   Those positions are increasingly going to analytic type persons,

     Which then brings up the additional barriers to entry that black and Hispanic students have to Science and Technology disciplines. 

 

What to make of it?

          Foucault/Butler on Discipline and embodiment?

          Bourdieu on class position?

          Said on Orientalizing discourse?

          Hall on inferential racism?  Figures in media portrayals?

          Political economy?

          Strategy vs. Tactics?

          How could you measure impacts of racial disparity (and remedies) with positivism?