Urban Politics and Governance
In these
lectures
A timeline of the changing fortunes of various groups in cities
and the ever increasing responsibilities urban governance entailed, linking
these to broad economic changes
A survey of theoretical approaches to politics to understand
How power is structured in cities
How we can determine the role of government in urban development
How can we contextualize local conflicts through broad patterns
All this hinges on urban governance, which is the process
that is the sum of the many ways individuals and institutions, public and
private, plan and manage the common affairs of the city
Time line: Laissez Faire
From independence to 1840, US urban governance was very limited in
scope in favor of a laissez faire system
It was during this era municipal and county governments (along
with school boards) emerged to help states manage their territories
Mostly these governments were centers of corruption, dominated by
elites who could sway votes
The exception was the direct democracy of town hall meetings in
New England townships, which led to less corrupt and more active governments
They concerned themselves with policing and sanitation, with 60%
of money spent on the night-watch, poor house and prison and were funded
mostly by property taxes (which cities would eventually seek to increase by
taking action to increase property values)
Local governments initially could not borrow which prevented large
scale infrastructure improvement
But once the idea of incorporation took hold, then towns
took on the property of limited liability (that the citizens could not be sued
if the town government defaulted) and were able to issue bonds
Municipal bonds are generally seen as safe investments, because
property taxes are viewed as stable and infrastructure improvements are
theoretically supposed to raise revenue by raising values
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Which begins a still-going cycle of dependence on debt financing
by small entities, which is not super-cost-effficient
Municipal Socialism and the rise of Machine Politics
From 1840 and 1875, now that urban governments could finance
debt, they could actually do something
Local governments were more powerful and active
The big fight was against the unholy trinity of fires (again,
this is an era of early industry, dense crowding, and wood structures),
disease, and the mob
Also era of machine politics (like Tammany Hall), which were
hierarchical organizations topped by a charismatic leader who got support from
the working class by returning goodies to them (thus allowing him to benefit
from his power)
These would become the basis of political parties and trade unions
Machine politicians, however, liked being associated with public
works, so spending on these increased during this era
They also helped bring order to the city through housing codes
Cities began providing services for collective consumption
(meaning available to all citizens) like fire, water, policing, sewer
With collective consumption, the idea is to choose areas where the
market creates inefficiencies through competition that wastes resources (or
that leaves gaps in universal service coverage). Competing private firefighters
sucked compared to city ones
In the North, a new class of entrepreneurs were becoming
increasingly influential behind the scenes; in the South, there was less
machine politics because of a lack of industrial working class and less
entrepreneurialism
Boosterism & the Politics of Reform (1875-1920)
Era of the pushback of the new urban elite which controlled
downtown businesses against the corruption/pro-immigrant policies of the
political machines
Boosterism (the aligning of government and private sector to
attract investment) was the governance priority; thus economic expansion came
to take priority over equity, civil rights, community well being
It became critical, because cities were increasingly competing
against each other for new factories
The middle class begins to emerge, who both push towards suburbs
and want a focus on an improved quality of life (especially improved morals)
This was the era of the temperance movements, one of many reform
movements targeting the supposed moral decay of cities
However, some places (like Detroit under Mayor Hazen Pingree), were governed by immigrant/middle class
coalitions that went under the label Progressive that ended corruption,
improved equity, and expanded urban services
Reform (cont.)
The Progressive ideals were enshrined by the National Municipal
League as
That there was an identifiable public interest that was common
to all citizens, best met by providing efficient services
Separation of service administration from city hall politics
A permanent civil service of experts
Application of principles of scientific planning
It was put into place by
A merit-based civil service, where applicants had to pass an exam
Idea was this would bring better educated applicants disconnected
from patronage (and thus less likely to be corrupt)
Only in the South was this not implemented during this era
Detailed, standardized accounting and public bidding for contracts
Independently elected boards and commissions to oversee key areas
(like the school board) that were separate from City Hall
Reform (cont.)
Put in place by (cont.)
At-large (as opposed to ward-based) elections, to prevent
patronage from concentrating among certain groups or in certain areas
These elections were also non-partisan, in that people could not
run as part of parties
Although at-large elections can also prevent a minority group from
getting any representation at all
The abolition of the elected mayor as chief executive in favor of
a professional city manager (to run operations) and an elected commission (to
set policy)
50% of US cities now run this system, and more switch to it every
year
Although recently cities like Akron, Pittsburgh and Cleveland have
gone to a county/regional mayor and a strengthened county commission, while
limiting the power of the city/suburbs
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The idea is that a strong county mayor makes someone responsible
for both representing the region AND who is answerable to all voters.
Reform (cont.)
This was also a big era of annexation (where unincorporated land
was added)
It was thought to achieve economies of scale (bigger city could
deliver more services at a lower per capita price)
Boosters wanted the prosperous street car suburbs back in the
urban fold
They also helped the tax base
Middle class suburban voters also would help break up machines
Developers liked it because it meant city water and sewer would be
extended to new developments
Chicago swallowed then-exurbs like Hyde Park (and a lot of vacant
land) in a 130+ square mile annexation in 1889
By 1920, 1 million people lived on that land
This also caused the creation of New York City as we know it,
adding Brooklyn (then the USs fourth largest city), Staten Island, most of
Queens County and part of Westchester County (ie the
Bronx) to Manhattan/Harlem to keep NYC the countrys largest city
However, annexation (while providing better police, fire, water
and sewer), also meant higher taxes for the burbs and
having to share a school district, so this expansion era would come to an end
Fragmentation and Egalitarian Liberalism (1920-1945)
This was the first big era of automobile suburbanization, allowing
people to go even further afield
And now, new suburbs quickly incorporated as villages to resist
annexation (since people moved to suburbs to escape the citys problems)
State governments, weary of the voting power heading to burbs, basically ended forced annexation
So central cities became surrounded by dozens of (often hostile)
municipalities
This is called metropolitan fragmentation. Consequences included:
Fiscal squeeze for central cities, caused by
Reduced pool of educated and experienced leaders for central
cities
The flight of middle and upper classes hurt central city property
taxes, stopped the ability to get more taxes through annexation, and made it
harder for cities to get financing
Thus infrastructure needed ever increasing amounts of costly
repair
The new arrivals in the city were poor migrants or immigrants,
which mean they needed costly welfare provision and policing
Despite the middle class no longer living there, the central city
still provided metropolitan-wide amenities like museums, theater, roads,
utilities, shopping districts, parking for commuters, sports teams, etc.
Fragmentation (cont.)
Consequences (cont.)
As mentioned previously, incorporation (and especially zoning),
intensified segregation as large lot sizes and bans on apartments could make
areas comparatively more expensive.
Political fragmentation, where no political body exists that can
set region-wide policy (given that most metros spill over county lines and many
county governments are weak).
Also, suburban governments tend to be quiet, un-contentious
entities, since most residents are similar to each other
Fiscal mercantilism, in which suburbs and cities within the same
metro compete with each other for investment, probably to the detriment of all
because of the lucrative deals they have to offer.
Fragmentation (cont.)
New Deal changed a lot of things for cities
The Depression marked the first time cities appealed for money
directly from the federal government (as some were facing property tax
delinquencies of 10% or more)
Before, they had to go begging state legislatures, which worked
out poorly since rural representatives dominated most state legislatures
Thus cities began to develop their own ways to relate to each
other (and lobby the feds), like the United States Conference of Mayors
This New Deal Policy was focused on cities because of the
multiplier effects of stimulus. It
included
Spending on public works and infrastructure
Welfare to stop poverty and boost incomes
Clearing slums and resettling slum dwellers
Federal support for home mortgages
Thus the federal government began to make policies for cities
superseding state policy
What began to solidify was a Pro-Growth coalition of working
classes and more liberal members of the middle class
In this alignment, it was government, not the business community,
which would promote economic development
Cities as Growth Machines & Service Providers (1945-73)
Throughout this era, municipal expenditures rose much faster than
the growth in city populations in almost all categories, but especially in
education (needing a tech savvy workforce), sanitation (more consumption meant
more trash), recreational services (with more leisure time), highways (more
cars) and welfare spending (possible in a time of affluence)
In fact, welfare spending went up 450% between 1960 and 1978
What emerges during this era are growth machines for urban
renewal organized by the city government (or an urban affairs association)
to make downtowns more business friendly, but which had many supporters
It was made possible by the Housing Acts of 1937 and 1949 which
allowed the clearance of blighted neighborhoods through eminent domain
Unlike public housing, private sector actually liked this, because
it closed rent gaps
Growth Machine (cont.)
Coalition included:
Investors, who could profit from the construction
Downtown business interests (banks, retail) wanted to recapture
lost business
Elites like doctors and lawyers who liked the pro-growth ideology
Real estate agents, who wanted higher values for higher
commissions
Political leaders, who could use it to create graft and point to
dynamism
Organized labor, who wanted jobs
Local and federal bureaucrats, whose role was solidified by
organizing such projects
Universities, especially land grant universities (in terms of
offering expertise) and urban ones (who had a pool of waiting gentrifiers)
Amenities like professional sports (who got new stadiums) and the
arts (who saw their surrounding neighborhoods cleared)
Almost every city in the US saw changes to their CBD
Minneapolis razed 40% of downtown and Pittsburgh opened the Golden
Triangle near the confluence of the rivers
Growth Machines (cont.)
Backlash
Urban renewal (via eminent domain) displaced around 610,000 by
1963, most of whom saw rent go up (or moved to worse housing)
Only property owners were compensated; renters sometimes did not
even get moving expenses
In fact, cities would pursue policies to make properties cheaper
before seizing them all (like removing residents from near commercial strips,
or demolishing a few homes)
While old civic groups liked renewal, new groups (including
African American, new immigrant, social service and college student groups)
sprung up to fight it
Didnt like the targeting of the poor; didnt like destroying
established neighborhoods for highways; didnt like the uniform bland modernist
architecture (a la Jane Jacobs Life and Death of Great American Cities)
Eventually, these groups would become part of the establishment,
and moved the focus towards better service provision
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It was the first instance of NIMBYism
(Not In My Back Yard); which become the norm in
suburbs as well as BANANAism (Build Absolutely
Nothing Anywhere Near Anything) that led to
retail/commercial/industrial/residential segregation
Growth Machines (cont.)
As African Americans became increasingly concentrated in central
cities during this era, they became the major urban constituency
(gaining more council seats and mayorships)
This came only after the Civil Rights movement, with the early
integration phase led by King, followed by the Black Power phase (which came in
the wake of the late 1960s wave of assassinations)
This (finally) led to Black culture, art, history and society
being recognized and valued, and problems within the community started
receiving government help
This was key, since the fallout from urban renewal impacted
African American communities (and especially business districts) most
especially, urban issues were bound up with civil rights
Growth Machine (cont.)
During this era, there were many issues surrounding spatial
equality
Urban areas were underrepresented in Congress and state
legislatures because districts were mal-apportioned (where urban districts had
many more people in them than rural districts) until the Supreme Court forced
reapportionment (although, not at the local level, where it persists to the
disadvantage of poor communities)
Following reapportionment, gerrymandering became more common where
poor/minority constituencies were either stacked into a just a couple of
seats to limit their influence or cracked into a bunch of different
districts to eliminate their influence entirely
Florida tried to crack Haitians in Miami following the 2000
census, only to have the Supreme Court overturn the districting as clear
discrimination
But there were spatial inequalities in service provision as well
Cities created a lot of functional special districts (water, port,
zoo, etc
) to administer functional areas close to the ground
Led to uneven infrastructure provision and a lot of expensive and
competing bureaucracy on top of the unevenness caused by the patchwork of
wealthy suburbs
Often times to save money, cities would build fewer, larger
central facilities (for example libraries)
But however, because of distance decay effects, meant only really
close people used them extensively or they were inefficient because of the size
of lines + commute time
Entrepreneurial Politics and Neoliberalism (73-Present)
Stagflation hit just in the 1970s until early 1980s as
governments need to repair infrastructure and provide services grew
Some reacted by saying government had become too big; this
sentiment took Reagan into office
Although Nixon really began this by cutting federal urban grants
and money to the poor; tried to split the old pro-growth coalition pitting the
middle and white working class against the poor
Many states like California began seeing taxpayer revolts, where
the middle class and business interests aligned to cap taxes they thought were
only supporting other people and lazy government workers
And while 1970s bureaucracies were not efficient, the pendulum
swung too far the other way and this has finally come home to roost for
California
Not surprisingly, public-private partnerships became more
important and universal service provision less so
In fact, it was an era of fiscal retrenchment and cut services
(usually in the 10-40% range)
Neoliberal (cont.)
This was also the era of massive deindustrialization of Rustbelt and
growth of the Sunbelt, leading to changes in the urban system
New York City nearly went bankrupt with a $2.5 billion debt it
was put into receivership by the New York State Legislature, and cut 60,000
jobs!
The aforementioned fiscal squeeze hit cities hard, caused by a
spiral of decay hitting property tax roles
This was compounded by the increasing Suburnization
of lower middle class jobs and the office-ization of
downtown, which left the urban poor (lone elderly, single parent) out
Increasingly the infrastructure of cities was divided in two:
investments were made to help commuters and maintain business profitably,
overseen by efficient bureaucrats; any social infrastructure that was built to
support city residents came from patronage
Because of all of this (plus cities getting creative with their
accounting), cities entered an era of ever increasing borrowing costs (which
meant they could not fix things)