Making the Map: From Ottomans and Colonies to the (Nearly) Present Day

The big map note

• Until post WWI when British and French mandate (weird state between colony and independence) came about, and especially post WWII, boundaries between kingdoms had not been drawn on map

– In past most “boundaries” were in the middle of the desert

– Became contested when oil became more of a factor

– Some states, like Iraq, created to be fractious, so divide and conquer

• Very little local input in Sykes-Picot, Treaty of Sevres, and Lausanne Conference

Ottomans

• Claimed the Caliphate after relinquished by the last Abassid caliph in 1517

• Its “long decline” was overstated

– It was the major non-Christian power right up until the height of European power (post WWI)

• Incidentally, Oman actually overtook Portugal in Western Indian Ocean from 1698 until late 1800’s

– Zanibar, Dar es Salaam, Mombassa, Makran Coast

– The Ottoman Empire was, until early 20^th century, an effectively pluralist, multicultural state (especially by comparision)

• Turks ruling over Arabs, Christians, Jews

• Istanbul 50% not Muslim

Ottomans (cont)

• Ottoman Stagnation Reasons

– Was more institutional, not (as some claimed) a religious, problem

• The army (esp. Janissary Corps) and guilds refused to cede privileges or change operations

• Not overly centralized, many different regional economies, pashas (regional rulers)

– Was, w/ Russians, the last great land Empire

• Trading based on Silk road

– Europe developed navies, export colonies to compete with Ottomans

» This model turned out more efficient

• Being built on old model made change harder

– Remember: European Colonialism collapsed only 40 years later

Ottomans (keep on going…)

– There were reforms, called Tanzimet in 1800’s

• Should be seen not as “Europeanization,” but locally derived attempt to deal with new international system

• Conscript army, banking, property ownership, taxes, uniforms for government employees

• Equal protection given to all males in Empire

– Europe’s colonial success due to apartheid policies

» Colonists had more rights than colonizers

– However, granting protection did not solve problem of nationalism within empire

Fall of Ottomans, Rise of Turkey

• Though territory had been shrinking for two centuries, still large

• Young Turks, educated under Tanzimet, took over in 1908, did secularization, centralization

– This angered provincial rulers, as well as provincial nationalists

• Finally lost Mashriq during WWI

– Land given to French and British Mandate

– Original treaty of Sevres was to have Anatolia occupied

• Mustafa Kamal Ataturk takes over after WWI

– Gets present day Turkey, furthers secularization, semi-democratization, Turkish nationalism

• Bad for Kurds

Hashemites

• Clan within the larger Quraish tribe, to which The Prophet Muhammad belonged

• Since 1201 at least, a Hashemite held the position of Sharif of Mecca (protect Holy Sites, pilgrimage sites)

• In 1908 Hussein bin Ali becomes Sharif

– Disagrees with Young Turks, b/c threatens family position

– Leads Arab Revolt with British during WWI

• As reward after WWI:

– He is named Caliph (no one cares)

– The new Transjordan (now Jordan) territory to his son Abdullah

– The new Iraq to his son Faisal

Sauds

• In 1744 Muhammad Ibn Saud of the Nejd highlands marries daughter of conservative religious leader Muhammad Ibn Abd al Wahhab

– Cements alliance between religion, Saudi State

• Abdul Aziz Al-Saud retook Riyadh (traditional center of their power) in 1902 from Al Rashidis

• Takes the Hijaz from Hussein bin Ali, puts son Faisal in charge (but not named Sharif)

– British allow this to happen, makes unified Kingdom of Nejd and Hijaz

– Later addition of al-Hasa made it the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia

Gulf Sheikhdoms

• Sheikh means honored person, used for tribal leaders

– Emir means commander/leader/prince

• Kuwait (means small fortress)

– Traders of Anaiza tribe from Nejd, settled in Gulf during 1700’s

• Called themselves Bani Utub, leader Sabah

– Kuwait had natural harbor, did trade & pearling

• Border drawn in circle 80 km from Kuwait City

– Aligned with British in 1899

• Protected them against Sauds in 1920, in 1961 from Iraq when Kuwait declared formal Independence

– Oil concession given in 1932, largest exporter in Gulf by 1961

– Was business capital of Gulf until Iraqi invasion

Other Gulf Sheikdoms

• Bahrain (two seas)

– Ruled by Sunni Al-Khalifas (tribally affiliated with the Al-Sabahs) who were active in much of Western Gulf, eventually took Bahrain in late 1700’s

• Signed treaty with British to protect from Persia

– National population is 70% Shi’a

• Ismaili Qarmatite sect in control there around 900, actually stole the black stone of Mecca

– It has natural springs, one of best sites in Gulf

• Now most local Shi’a are Twelvers

• Qatar

– Muhammad bin Thani negotiated on behalf of Qatar rebels against Al-Khalifis around 1870

• Sunnis, followers of al-Wahhab

– Environment is very barren

Gulf Sheikhdoms

• United Arab Emirates

– United as Trucial States by British in 19^th century, to stop raiding of British ships

– Abu Dhabi and Dubai are Al Bu Falah section of Bani Yas (Oasis dweller), Sharjah and RAK is al Qawasim (seafarer)

– Before independence in 1971, British rode around asking people who they were loyal to in order to divide Emirates

• Abu Dhabi most oil/power/land, Dubai trade/oil

Oman

– More ancient, established than other Gulf states

– Like UAE, power alternated between seafarers of Muscat and mountain people of Nizwa

• Al Bu Said dynasty took Muscat, then some of Indian Ocean

Yemen

– Again an amalgamation of various tribes, but more so than other states

• In North, around San’a there are Shi’i

• In the South, around British coal port of Aden, Sunnis

– During Cold War

• North Yemen Civil War between Egyptian Republican forces and Saudi/British Royalists

• Spills over to Protectorate of Aden, which becomes socialist after Independence

• Unites in 1990, but the government has always been shaky, even if the ruler only stepped down in 2012.

– Little oil, not near as well off as other countries on the Arabian Peninsula

Iran

• By 1800’s Persian empire now basically what we think of as Iran

– Qajars, followed by Pahlavi dynasties ruled until 1979

– Early 20^th century constitutional reform

• Oil found in 1908, leads to founding of Anglo Iranian Oil Company

• In 1950, US and British agents overthrow democratically elected prime minister Mossadegh for threatening to nationalize oil

– Afterwards Shah tries to modernize (while also repressing with secret police), but leaves masses behind

– Stays aligned with United States

– Which brings us to 1979…

Egypt and Arab Nationalism

• Napoleon invades around 1800, expelled by British

– Civil War results, Albanian king Muhammd Ali rises

– Canal finished in 1869

• B/c of debts, Brits gain influence in 1882

– Independence in 1920’s

• After loss to Israel, King Farouk forced out by military officer Gamal Nasser

– Premier of Egypt in 1954, President in 1956

– Believer in secular, Arab Nationalism

• A movement for all Arabs

– Supports Third World independence in general

• Gained prestige by standing up to Israel, France, Britain in 1956 Suez War

– Caused by Nationalization of Suez Canal, embargo of Israel

• Gets arms from Soviets

Pan-Arabism

• 1958-1961 forms United Arab Republic with Syria

– Both countries wanted to modernize, be secular

– Nasser ruled from Cairo, Syrians resent him

• Ba’th (Renaissance) Party, founded by Michel Aflaq, gets control in Syria, separate group in Iraq

– Internal Ba’th party coups bring strongmen Al-Assad and Sadaam Hussein to power

– Nasser loses to Israel in 1967, dead in 1972

– Replaced by Sadat, who gets back canal, signs peace with Israel

– He is killed, replaced by Hosni Mubarak, who is finally swept away in 2011

• Arab unity left to fractious, anti-reform, largely ineffective Arab League, which is like a UN for Arab states

Palestine and Israel – A Whole Other Lecture

Lebanon

• Part of Ottoman Empire for 400 years

– However, in 19^th century, French backed Maronites, British the Druze

• Beirut becomes international cultural capital

– After WWI, French to get Syria, Lebanon (Syria w/ more independence)

• To weaken Arab Syria, took Druze and Shi’i (more connected to Damascus) and added them to the traditional province of Lebanon, which was Maronite

– Constitution said President Christian, PM Muslim, 6:5 seats for Christians

• Christians better connected to Europe, wealthier

• Other groups feel this arrangement is unfair

– Civil War from 1975 to 1991

• Palestinian refugees, now a Muslim majority, vast inequalities between/within groups

Algeria

• Algiers was Ottoman, then controlled by the mostly independent Dey from 1671

– Known to Europe, America as Barbary Coast (with Tunis and Tripoli) or Privateering states

• U.S. has two as Barbary “Wars” (1801-5, 1815), to stop paying tribute, ransom to protect ships

Algeria (cont)

– French use the Dey’s provocation as excuse to begin settler colonization around 1830

– Coast is organized into departments (French admin. Provinces), the colonizing French get to send representatives to parliament

• Muslims could become citizens if renounced Sharia

– Took best land for French agriculture (citrus, olives, grapes), poor land for cereals for peasants

• 1909, for instance, Muslims, who made up almost 90% of the population but produced 20% of Algeria's income, paid 70% of direct taxes and 45% of the total taxes collected

Algeria (cont.)

• Front de Libération Nationale (FLN) launches attacks in 1954, fighting until 1962

– Colons (French settlers), Harkis (Muslim collaborators), and Algerian Jews all fled

• This meant most administrators, professionals left

• FLN takes control through election, though military wing soon takes over

Algeria (last one)

• Algerian Civil War

– 1991 opened up to elections, looked like Islamic Salvation Front would win

• They were banned, and imprisoned

• Formed two militias: in mountains, Islamic Armed Movement (MIA) and in villages, Armed Islamic Group (GIA)

– First fought government, then each other

» Suspected GIA/government alliance

• 1999 guerilla amnesty, 2002 last of GIA

Morocco and Western Sahara

• Ruled by Alouite Dynasty since 1666

• France, Spain both desired it

– Morocco a protectorate of France in 1912

– Sahara zones to Spain same year

• Post WWII, full independence sought by Moroccans

– Sultan Mohammed V exiled in ’53, returned in 55, independence in 56

• There was violence, not the same fighting seen in more colon heavy Algeria

– Recent liberalization, new family law

• Spanish Sahara saw Franco’s Spain hold on into 1970’s

– Resistance by Polisario led to Spanish pullout in 1974, supposed to be self determination

• Morocco and Mauritania moved in, thwarted self-rule

Libya and Tunisia

Libya

• Libya saw King Idris lead independence movement against Italy

– First UN assisted independence in 1952

• Oil found, all wealth to him and elites

– Overthrown in 1969 by military officers, including eccentric Muammar Gaddafi

• Took county on path called “Islamic Socialism” outlined in his Green Book

• Isolated until the early 2000’s for adventures in Africa; quickly lost support during revolution

Tunisia

• Was French protectorate, less settler colonization

• Post Independence, remained stable and secular under Neo-Destour (constitution party)

– This was the surprise of the Arab Spring – unlike all the other states involved, politics had been pretty low key here.

Sudan

• A divided state (now literally)

– In 19^th century absorbed into Egypt, but run as North and South colonies

– Given independence in 1954

• Arab, Muslim North centered on Khartoum

• South – African Christian and Animist

– Now the independent nation of South Sudan

• West (Darfur)– African Muslim

– After years of civil conflict, negotiations, and then a referendum, it was split into Sudan and South Sudan in 2011

Cyprus

• One of largest islands of the Mediterranean

• Under Romans/Byzantines, largely Greek & Christian

• Ottomans take island in 1570

– Many Turks settle until British gain influence in 1878

• Annexed in 1914, Greek paramilitary begins fight to end British control/reunite with Greece

• Britain, Greek Cypriots, Turkish Cypriots, Greece and Turkey negotiate an independent Republic of Cyprus in 1960

• 79% Greek/18% Turkish, villages internally homogenous, but next to villages of other groups

Cyprus (cont.)

• By 1964 tensions bring a UN peace keeping force

• In 1974, pro-Union Greek Cypriots (backed by Greece) try to overthrow Greek Cypriot government

– Turkey invades, draws Attila Line giving Turkish Cypriots 1/3 of land in the North

• 150,000 Greek Cypriots move South, 45,000 Turkish Cypriots move North, about 6000 die in process

• Greek Cypriots who favored Independence tredged on, their government (ROC) got good international support

– Economy (especially tourism) flourished, joined EU 2004

• Turkish Cyprus not fully out from under shadow of Turkey

• There has been little violence recently, some talks, some travel between N and S

Conclusions

• Region, despite popular belief, involved in global flows

– Socialism

– Anti-colonialism, anti-monarchism

– Secularism

• Many liberalization efforts came from strong arm governments, who aligned with Islam for independence then cast it aside

– Thus Islam becomes politically charged, source of opposition